LMAF Course 1 Year

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LMAF Course 1 Year Details

LMAF Course 1 Years : Mobile Number. 01987073965,01797522136.Hotline- The full Meaning of LMAF is(Local Medical Assistant & Family welfare). A LMAF course of 1 Year 1 duration is a Short Type of LMAF course in Bangladesh This Course contains 10 subject in 2 semesters. The 1st Semester contains 5 subject and 2nd semester contains 5 subjects.

Location of LMAF Course 1 Year

Location of Local Medical Assistant & Family welfare (LMAF) course 1 Year Training Institute. Mobile Number.01987073965. 01941123488, 01797522136. HRTD Medical Institute , Abdul Ali Madbor Mention, Section-6, Block-Kha, Road-1, Plot-11, Mirpur-10 (Gol-Chattar) Metro Rail Pilar NO-249, Dhaka-1216. It is situated by the West Side of Agrani Bank, the South Side of Fire Service, Islami Bank, Janata Bank, Social Islami Bank, Medinova, Ibrahim Diabetic Hospital, the North Side of Baitul Mamur Jame Mosjid, Grave of Baitul Mamur Jame Mosjid, and East Side of Maliha Apartment.

Course Fee for LMAF Course 1Year in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Course Fee for LMAF Course 1 Year. Mobile Number. 01987073965. 01941123488, 01797522136. DMS Course Fee for 1 Year TK 52,500/- Including Admission Fee, Monthly Fee & Exam Fee.

LMAF Course 1 Year Admission Eligibility in Dhaka, Bangladesh

LMAF Course 1 Year Admission Eligibility. Mobile Number. 01987073965. 01941123488, 01797522136. SSC or Equivalent/HSC/ Degree/ Masters from any Background (Science/ Arts/ Commerce/ Technical).

Document for admission in LMAF Course 1 Year

LMAF Course in Dhaka. Mobile No: 01987-073965, 01797-522136. HRTD Medical Institute.

Photocopy of Certificate, Photocopy of NID, Passport Size Photo 4 Pcs. Without NID, a Birth Certificate is allowed for an emergency case.

Subjects For LMAF Course 1 Year

LMAF Course 1 Year Contains 10 Subject. Human Anatomy & Physiology,Pharmacology-1,Study of OTC, First Aid, Practice of Medicine,Hematology-1,Pathology for Medical Practice, Cardiovascular Anatomy, Orthopedic Anatomy,Surgery-1,Antimicrobial Drug, Medical Diagnosis,

Teachers For LMAF Course 1 Year

1. Dr. Md. Sakulur Rahman, MBBS, CCD (BIRDEM), Course Director
2. Dr. Sanjana Binte Ahmed, BDS, MPH, Assistant Course Director
3. Dr. Tisha, MBBS, PGT Gyne, Assistant Course Director
4. Dr. Suhana, MBBS, PGT Medicine
5. Dr. Danial Hoque, MBBS, C-Card
6. Dr. Tisha, MBBS
7. Dr. Afrin Jahan, MBBS, PGT Medicine
8. Dr. Ananna, MBBS
9. Dr. Lamia Afroze, MBBS
10. Dr. Amena Afroze Anu, MBBS, PGT Gyne, Assistant Course Director
11. Dr. Farhana Antara, MBBS,
12. Dr. Nazmun Nahar Juthi, BDS, PGT
13. Dr. Farhana Sharna, MBBS
14. Dr. Bushra, MBBS
15. Dr. Turzo, MBBS
16. Dr. Kamrunnahar Keya, BDS, PGT (Dhaka Dental College)
17. Dr. Shamima, MBBS, PGT Gyne
18. Dr. Alamin, MBBS
19. Dr. Benzir Belal, MBBS
20. Dr. Disha, MBBS
21. Dr. Mahinul Islam, MBBS
22. Dr. Tisha, MBBS, PGT Medicine
23. Dr. Anika, MBBS, PGT
24. Dr. Jannatul Ferdous, MBBS, PGT Gyne
25. Dr. Jannatul Aman, MBBS, PGT
26. Dr. Rayhan, BPT
27. Dr. Abu Hurayra, BPT
28. Dr. Sharmin Ankhi, MBBS, PGT Medicine
29. Md. Monir Hossain, B Pharm, M Pharm
30. Md. Monirul Islam, B Pharm, M Pharm
31. Md. Feroj Ahmed, BSc Pathology, PDT Medicine

Practical Work For LMAF Course 1 Year

1. Heart Beat, Heart Rate
2. Heart Sound,Pulse
3. Blood Pressure, Hypertension, Hypotension
4. First Aid Box
5. Auscultation
6. Inhaler, Rotahaler
7. Nebulizer
8. Glucometer Blood Glucose
9. Injection I/V
10. Injection I/M
11. Cleaning,Dressing,Bandaging
12. Saline
13. CPR
14. Stitch
15. Body Temperature
16. Nasal Tube Gel ,Hand Wash
17. Blood Grouping
18. Cyanosis, Dehydration Test, Edema Test

Subjects for LMAF Course 1 Year

LMAF Course 1 Year Contains 10 Subject. Mobile Number: 01987-073965,01797-522136

1. Human Anatomy & Physiology-1
2. Pharmacology-1
3. Study of OTC Drugs
4. First Aid-1 & 2
5. Practice of Medicine
6. Hematology
7. Pathology for Medical Practice
8. Surgery-1
9. Cardiovascular Anatomy
10. Antimicrobial drugs
11. Medical Diagnosis-1 & 2
12. Chemistry
13. Medical Biochemistry
14. Orthopedic Anatomy

Some Practical Class Details Given Below for LMAF Course 1 Year

1. Heart Beat

Definition

Heart beat is one complete cycle of heart contraction and relaxation that pumps blood throughout the body.

What happens in one heart beat?

1. Systole – heart contracts → blood is pumped out
2. Diastole – heart relaxes → heart fills with blood

➡️ These two together make one heart beat

Normal heart beat sounds

• “Lub” (S1) – closing of mitral & tricuspid valves
• “Dub” (S2) – closing of aortic & pulmonary valves

Function

• Supplies oxygen & nutrients
• Removes waste products
• Maintains blood pressure

2. Heart Rate

Definition

Heart rate is the number of heart beats per minute (bpm).

Normal Heart Rate (Resting)

Age Group	Normal Heart Rate
Newborn	120–160 bpm
Infant	100–140 bpm
Child	80–120 bpm
Adult	60–100 bpm
Athlete	40–60 bpm

3. Difference Between Heart Beat & Heart Rate

Feature	Heart Beat	Heart Rate
Meaning	One pumping cycle	Beats per minute
Unit	Single beat	bpm
Example	1 contraction + relaxation	72 beats/min

---

4. Measurement of Heart Rate

Sites

• Radial artery (wrist)
• Carotid artery (neck)
• Apical (stethoscope)

Methods

• Palpation
• Auscultation
• ECG / Monitor

5. Abnormal Heart Rate

Tachycardia

• Heart rate >100 bpm
• Causes: fever, anxiety, exercise, anemia

Bradycardia

• Heart rate <60 bpm
• Causes: athletes, sleep, heart disease

Blood Pressure

Definition: Blood Pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of arteries during heart contraction and relaxation.

1. Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)

• Pressure during ventricular contraction
• Normal: ~ 120 mmHg

2. Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP)

• Pressure during ventricular relaxation
• Normal: ~ 80 mmHg

👉 Normal BP = 120/80 mmHg

Units of Blood Pressure

• Measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg)

Normal Blood Pressure Values

Category	Systolic (mmHg)	Diastolic (mmHg)
Normal	<120	<80
Elevated	120–129	<80
Hypertension Stage-1	130–139	80–89
Hypertension Stage-2	≥140	≥90
Hypotension	<90	<60

---

Factors Affecting Blood Pressure

• Age
• Exercise
• Stress & emotions
• Body weight
• Diet (salt intake)
• Smoking & alcohol
• Diseases (heart, kidney)
• Drugs

Measurement of Blood Pressure

Instruments

• Sphygmomanometer
• Stethoscope
• Digital BP machine

Sites

• Brachial artery (most common)

Method

• Auscultatory method
• Palpatory method

Abnormal Blood Pressure

Hypertension (High BP)

• BP ≥140/90 mmHg
• Causes: obesity, stress, smoking, kidney disease
• Complications: stroke, heart attack, kidney failure

Hypotension (Low BP)

• BP <90/60 mmHg
• Causes: dehydration, blood loss, shock
• Symptoms: dizziness, fainting

Nebulizer Practical Class for DMS Course 1 Year

Definition

Nebulization is a procedure in which liquid medicine is converted into fine mist (aerosol) and inhaled into the lungs for treatment of respiratory conditions.

Purpose / Indications

• Bronchial asthma
• COPD
• Bronchospasm
• Pneumonia
• Acute respiratory distress
• Thick respiratory secretions

Common Drugs Used

• Salbutamol (bronchodilator)
• Ipratropium bromide
• Budesonide
• Normal saline (0.9%)

Articles Required

1. Nebulizer machine
2. Nebulizer chamber
3. Mask / mouthpiece
4. Prescribed medication
5. Normal saline
6. Syringe / dropper
7. Gloves
8. Towel / tissue

Procedure (Practical Steps)

Before Procedure

1. Explain procedure to patient
2. Wash hands & wear gloves
3. Check doctor’s order
4. Assess respiratory status (RR, SpO₂, breath sounds)
5. Place patient in sitting / semi-Fowler’s position

During Procedure

1. Add prescribed drug into nebulizer chamber
2. Add normal saline (total volume usually 3–5 ml)
3. Connect chamber to mask & machine
4. Switch on nebulizer
5. Place mask properly on patient’s face
6. Instruct patient to breathe slowly & deeply
7. Continue until mist stops (≈ 5–10 minutes)

After Procedure

1. Switch off nebulizer
2. Remove mask
3. Encourage patient to rinse mouth (especially after steroid)
4. Clean & dry nebulizer parts
5. Wash hands
6. Document procedure & patient response

Glucometer Blood Glucose

Some Subject Details for LMAF Course 1 Years

Human Anatomy & Physiology for LMAF Course 1 Years

The Study of the body Structure and its function is Anatomy & Physiology. Here we discuss the systems of the human body and its organ, Tissues, and cells. The systems of the human body are the digestive system, Respiratory system, Cardiovascular system, Skeletal system, Muscular system, nervous system, Endocrine system, Immune System, Integumentary System and Urinary System.

Definition

Anatomy (English):
Anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body and the relationship between body parts.

অ্যানাটমি (বাংলা):
অ্যানাটমি হলো মানবদেহের গঠন, অঙ্গ-প্রত্যঙ্গ এবং তাদের পারস্পরিক সম্পর্কের অধ্যয়ন।

Physiology (English):
Physiology is the study of the functions of the human body and how body parts work.

ফিজিওলজি (বাংলা):
ফিজিওলজি হলো মানবদেহের বিভিন্ন অঙ্গ কীভাবে কাজ করে তার অধ্যয়ন।

Levels of Organization (শরীরের গঠনের স্তর)

1. Cell (কোষ) – দেহের সবচেয়ে ছোট জীবিত একক
2. Tissue (টিস্যু) – একই ধরনের কোষের সমষ্টি
3. Organ (অঙ্গ) – বিভিন্ন টিস্যু দিয়ে গঠিত (যেমন: হৃদপিণ্ড)
4. System (সিস্টেম) – একাধিক অঙ্গের সমন্বয়
5. Organism (সম্পূর্ণ মানবদেহ)

Major Systems of Human Body

System	Main Function
Skeletal System	দেহকে আকৃতি ও সাপোর্ট দেয়
Muscular System	চলাচল ও শক্তি উৎপাদন
Nervous System	দেহের নিয়ন্ত্রণ ও সমন্বয়
Cardiovascular System	রক্ত পরিবহন
Respiratory System	শ্বাস-প্রশ্বাস
Digestive System	খাদ্য হজম
Urinary System	বর্জ্য নির্গমন
Endocrine System	হরমোন নিঃসরণ
Reproductive System	প্রজনন
Integumentary System	ত্বক ও সুরক্ষা

কয়েকটি সিস্টেম সম্পর্কে আলোচনা করা হলো:

1. Skeletal System

Function:

• Gives shape and support to the body
• Protects vital organs (brain, heart, lungs)
• Helps in body movement
• Produces blood cells in bone marrow

Main Parts:

• Bones (206 bones)
• Joints
• Cartilage

2. Muscular System

Function:

• Enables movement of the body
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat

Types of Muscles:

1. Skeletal muscle – voluntary
2. Smooth muscle – involuntary
3. Cardiac muscle – found in the heart

3. Nervous System

Function:

• Controls and coordinates body activities
• Receives and responds to stimuli
• Responsible for thinking, memory, and emotions

Main Parts:

• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Nerves

4. Cardiovascular System

Function:

• Circulates blood throughout the body
• Transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones
• Removes waste products

Main Parts:

• Heart
• Blood
• Blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)

5. Respiratory System

Function:

• Helps in breathing
• Supplies oxygen to the blood
• Removes carbon dioxide from the body

Main Parts:

• Nose
• Trachea
• Lungs
• Alveoli

6. Digestive System

Function:

• Digestion of food
• Absorption of nutrients
• Elimination of waste

Main Parts:

• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Intestines
• Liver and pancreas

Pharmacology-1 for LMAF Course 1 Year

1. Definition of Pharmacology

Pharmacology is the branch of medical science that deals with drugs, their sources, actions, uses, side effects, and mechanisms in the human body.

2. Drug – Definition

A drug is a chemical substance that is used to diagnose, prevent, treat, or cure disease.

3. Branches of Pharmacology

1. Pharmacokinetics – What the body does to the drug
2. Pharmacodynamics – What the drug does to the body
3. Pharmacotherapeutics – Use of drugs in treatment
4. Toxicology – Study of harmful effects of drugs
5. Chemotherapy – Drugs used to treat infections and cancer

4. Pharmacokinetics (ADME)

A – Absorption:
How a drug enters the bloodstream

D – Distribution:
How the drug spreads in the body

M – Metabolism:
Breakdown of drugs mainly in the liver

E – Excretion:
Removal of drugs mainly through kidneys (urine)

5. Pharmacodynamics

• Drug action and effect
• Receptor interaction
• Dose–response relationship

Example:
Paracetamol reduces pain and fever.

6. Routes of Drug Administration

• Oral (by mouth)
• Sublingual
• Intravenous (IV)
• Intramuscular (IM)
• Subcutaneous (SC)
• Topical
• Inhalation

7. Types of Drugs

• Analgesics (pain killers)
• Antibiotics
• Antipyretics (reduce fever)
• Antiseptics
• Sedatives

8. Adverse Drug Reactions (ADR)

• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Allergy
• Drowsiness

9. Importance of Pharmacology for Nurses / Physiotherapists

• Safe drug administration
• Understanding drug effects
• Prevention of medication errors
• Patient education

10. Common Terms

• Dose: Amount of drug given
• Therapeutic effect: Desired effect
• Side effect: Unwanted effect
• Overdose: Excess amount of drug

Study of OTC for LMAF Course 1 Year

OTC Drugs are important for all Medical Assistant Courses. These Drugs are Emergency and safe for the patients. The Study of OTC Drugs improves the quality of practice. Some OTC Drugs are Albendazole, Ascorbic Acid, Calcium, Multivitamins, Vitamin B Complex, Omeprazole, Oral Rehydration Salt, Salbutamol etc.

1. Definition of OTC Drugs

OTC (Over-the-Counter) drugs are medicines that can be purchased without a doctor’s prescription and are used for minor illnesses.

2. Common Uses of OTC Drugs

• Headache
• Fever
• Cold & cough
• Mild pain
• Acidity
• Minor skin problems

3. Classification of OTC Drugs

A. Analgesics & Antipyretics

Use: Pain and fever

• Paracetamol
• Ibuprofen

⚠️ Side effects: Liver damage (overdose), gastric irritation

B. Antacids

Use: Acidity, heartburn

• Aluminum hydroxide
• Magnesium hydroxide

⚠️ Side effects: Constipation, diarrhea

C. Antihistamines

Use: Allergy, cold, sneezing

• Cetirizine
• Loratadine

⚠️ Side effects: Drowsiness

D. Cough & Cold Preparations

Use: Cough, sore throat

• Dextromethorphan
• Guaifenesin

E. Laxatives

Use: Constipation

• Isabgol
• Bisacodyl

F. Antiseptics & Disinfectants

Use: Wound cleaning

• Povidone-iodine
• Chlorhexidine

4. Advantages of OTC Drugs

• Easily available
• Low cost
• Useful for minor ailments
• Saves time

5. Disadvantages / Risks

• Wrong drug use
• Overdose
• Drug interactions
• Masking of serious disease

First Aid for LMAF Course 1 Year

First Aid is an important subject for Medical courses including Diplomas in Medicine & Surgery course. RMP Courses, LMAF Courses, Paramedical Courses, DMA Courses, DMS Courses, Nursing Courses, Dental Courses, Pathology Courses, Physiotherapy Courses, Caregiver courses etc. Here we discuss shock, Classification Shock, causes of Shock, Stages of Shock, Clinical Features of Shock, Hypovolemic Shock, Cardiogenic Shock, Neurogenic Shock, Traumatic Shock, Burn Shock, Electric Shock, Psychogenic Shock, Anaphylactic Shock, First Aid of Shock, First Aid of cut, First Aid of Snake Bite, First Aid of Accidental Injury etc.

1. Definition

First Aid is the immediate and temporary care given to an injured or suddenly ill person before professional medical help is available.

2. Aims of First Aid

• Preserve life
• Prevent further injury
• Promote recovery

3. Basic Principles of First Aid

• Stay calm and ensure scene safety
• Check Airway, Breathing, Circulation (ABC)
• Call for medical help if needed
• Do not move the patient unnecessarily

4. Common First Aid Situations

A. Bleeding

• Apply direct pressure
• Elevate the injured part
• Use a clean bandage

B. Burns

• Cool the burn with running water (10–20 minutes)
• Do not break blisters
• Cover with a clean cloth

C. Fracture

• Immobilize the affected area
• Use splints if available
• Do not try to straighten the bone

D. Fainting

• Lay the person flat
• Raise legs
• Loosen tight clothing

E. Choking

• Encourage coughing
• Perform abdominal thrusts (Heimlich maneuver) if needed

F. Shock

• Lay patient down
• Keep warm
• Do not give food or drink

5. First Aid Kit Contents

• Sterile gauze
• Bandages
• Antiseptic solution
• Scissors
• Gloves
• Cotton
• Pain reliever

6. Importance of First Aid

• Saves lives
• Reduces severity of injury
• Provides confidence in emergencies

Practice of Medicine For LMAF Course 1 Year

DMS Course 1 Year for Important topics in the practice of medicine include fundamental sciences like anatomy, physiology, and pathology; core clinical subjects such as internal medicine, surgery, and pediatrics; and practical applications like pharmacology, diagnostic procedures, and patient management. Additionally, crucial areas include public health (sanitation, vaccination), family medicine (addressing a wide range of patient needs), and increasingly, community medicine (epidemiology, health indicators), and interdisciplinary fields like addiction medicine, forensic medicine, and genomic medicine. 

1. Definition

Practice of Medicine is the branch of medical science that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases using clinical knowledge and skills.

2. Scope of Practice of Medicine

• History taking
• Physical examination
• Diagnosis of disease
• Medical management (drug & non-drug)
• Prevention of disease
• Follow-up care

3. Components of Practice of Medicine

A. History Taking

• Chief complaints
• History of present illness
• Past medical history
• Drug history
• Family and social history

B. Physical Examination

• General examination
• Systemic examination (CVS, RS, CNS, GIT, etc.)

C. Diagnosis

• Provisional diagnosis
• Differential diagnosis
• Confirmed diagnosis

D. Treatment

• Drug therapy (medicines)
• Non-drug therapy (diet, rest, exercise, physiotherapy)

E. Prevention of Disease

• Primary prevention (immunization, health education)
• Secondary prevention (early diagnosis)
• Tertiary prevention (rehabilitation)

4. Common Diseases Studied in Practice of Medicine

• Hypertension
• Diabetes mellitus
• Bronchial asthma
• Tuberculosis
• Anemia
• Heart disease
• Peptic ulcer disease

Hematology-1 For LMAF Course 1 Year

Important hematology topics include anemias, bleeding and clotting disorders (like hemophilia), malignancies (leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma), blood transfusions, and bone marrow and stem cell transplantation. Other key subjects are blood composition, plasma proteins, and the basics of hematopoiesis and hemostasis. 

1. Introduction to Hematology

Hematology is the branch of medical science concerned with the study of blood, blood-forming organs (bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes), and blood disorders.

Functions of blood (overview):

• Transport of oxygen, nutrients, hormones
• Removal of carbon dioxide and waste
• Regulation of body temperature and pH
• Protection against infection
• Prevention of blood loss (clotting)

2. Composition of Blood

Total blood volume ≈ 5–6 liters in adults.

A. Plasma (≈55%)

Plasma is the liquid part of blood.

Components:

1. Water (90–92%)
2. Plasma proteins
   • Albumin – maintains osmotic pressure
   • Globulin – immunity (antibodies)
   • Fibrinogen – blood clotting
3. Electrolytes – Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺
4. Nutrients – glucose, amino acids, lipids
5. Hormones & enzymes
6. Waste products – urea, creatinine

Functions of Plasma:

• Maintains blood pressure
• Transport medium
• Helps in clotting and immunity

3. Formed Elements of Blood

A. Red Blood Cells (RBCs / Erythrocytes)

Structure:

• Biconcave, non-nucleated
• Diameter ≈ 7.5 µm

Normal Count:

• Male: 5–6 million/mm³
• Female: 4–5 million/mm³

Hemoglobin (Hb):

• Iron-containing protein
• Carries oxygen

Life Span:

• Approximately 120 days

Functions:

• Oxygen transport
• Carbon dioxide transport
• Acid–base balance

RBC Disorders:

• Anemia – low RBC or Hb
• Polycythemia – increased RBC count

B. White Blood Cells (WBCs / Leukocytes)

Normal Count:

• 4,000–11,000/mm³

Function:

• Body defense and immunity

Types of WBCs

1. Neutrophils (60–70%)

• First line of defense
• Fight bacterial infection

2. Lymphocytes (20–30%)

• B cells – antibody production
• T cells – cell-mediated immunity

3. Monocytes (2–8%)

• Phagocytosis
• Become macrophages

4. Eosinophils (1–4%)

• Allergic reactions
• Parasitic infections

5. Basophils (0.5–1%)

• Release histamine
• Inflammation and allergy

WBC Disorders:

• Leukocytosis – increased WBC
• Leukopenia – decreased WBC
• Leukemia – cancer of blood cells

C. Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Normal Count:

• 150,000–400,000/mm³

Life Span:

• 7–10 days

Function:

• Blood clotting
• Prevention of bleeding

Disorder:

• Thrombocytopenia – low platelet count

4. Hemostasis (Blood Clotting)

Steps:

1. Vasoconstriction
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation
   • Fibrinogen → Fibrin (clot formation)

Importance:

• Prevents excessive blood loss

5. Hemoglobin (Hb) in Detail

Normal Values:

• Male: 13–18 g/dL
• Female: 12–16 g/dL

Functions:

• Oxygen transport
• Maintains blood pH

Abnormalities:

• Low Hb → anemia
• High Hb → polycythemia

6. Blood Groups

ABO Blood Group System

• Group A
• Group B
• Group AB
• Group O

Rh Factor

• Rh positive
• Rh negative

Importance:

• Safe blood transfusion
• Pregnancy (Rh incompatibility)

7. Blood Formation (Hematopoiesis)

Site:

• Bone marrow (main site)

Process:

• Stem cells → RBCs, WBCs, platelets

8. Clinical Importance of Hematology

• Diagnosis of anemia and infections
• Monitoring treatment response
• Blood transfusion safety
• Management of bleeding disorders

Pathology for DMS Course 1 Year

Pathology is the medical science of studying diseases—their causes, mechanisms, and effects—primarily by examining tissues, cells, and body fluids (like blood/urine) in labs to diagnose illnesses, guide treatment, and monitor health, acting as the crucial link between basic science and clinical medicine, often involving microscopic analysis of biopsies, genetic testing, and microbiology. Pathologists are doctors specializing in this lab-based diagnosis, making critical decisions for cancer, infections, and chronic diseases, even performing autopsies to understand death.

Key Aspects of Pathology

• Study of Disease: Investigates how diseases start (etiology) and develop (pathogenesis). 
• Diagnostic Focus: Analyzes samples (biopsies, blood, urine) to find abnormalities. 
• Core Disciplines: Includes histology (tissues), cytology (cells), microbiology (germs), clinical chemistry, and molecular pathology (genetics). 
• Tools & Techniques: Uses microscopes, special stains, immunological markers, and genetic tests. 
• Clinical Role: Provides vital information for surgeons, oncologists, and other clinicians to diagnose, treat, and manage conditions like cancer, infections, and autoimmune disorders. 

What Pathologists Do

• Examine Specimens: Look at tissue under a microscope for signs of cancer, inflammation, or infection. 
• Perform Tests: Analyze blood for chemical imbalances or infectious agents. 
• Consult: Work with other doctors to determine the best course of treatment. 
• Conduct Autopsies: Investigate deaths to determine cause and manner. 

Modern Advancements

• Digital Pathology: Digitizing slides for easier sharing and analysis. 
• AI in Diagnostics: Using artificial intelligence to spot patterns and improve accuracy. 
• Molecular Pathology: Analyzing DNA and RNA for targeted therapies, especially in cancer. 

1. Definition

Pathology is the branch of medical science that studies:

• The causes of disease (etiology)
• The mechanism of disease development (pathogenesis)
• The structural and functional changes in tissues and organs (morphology)
• The effects of disease on the body

বাংলা সংজ্ঞা:
প্যাথলজি হলো রোগের কারণ, বিকাশ প্রক্রিয়া, অঙ্গ–প্রত্যঙ্গে পরিবর্তন এবং দেহে তার প্রভাবের অধ্যয়ন।

2. Branches of Pathology

1. General Pathology – Study of disease processes common to all organs (e.g., inflammation, necrosis)
2. Systemic Pathology – Study of diseases of specific organs or systems (e.g., cardiovascular, respiratory)
3. Clinical Pathology – Laboratory study of blood, urine, body fluids for diagnosis
4. Forensic Pathology – Study of death, injury, and crime-related pathology
5. Molecular Pathology – Study of diseases at cellular and molecular level

3. Etiology (Causes of Disease)

• Genetic – inherited conditions (e.g., sickle cell anemia)
• Infectious – bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites
• Physical – trauma, burns, radiation
• Chemical – poisons, toxins, drugs
• Nutritional – deficiency or excess (e.g., scurvy, obesity)
• Immune – autoimmune diseases

4. Pathogenesis (Mechanism of Disease)

• How the disease develops in the body
• Example: Atherosclerosis
  • Fat deposits in arteries → narrowing → reduced blood flow → heart attack

5. Morphological Changes

• Gross Changes: visible changes in organs (e.g., enlarged liver)
• Microscopic Changes: cellular changes under microscope (e.g., inflammation, necrosis)

6. Common Pathological Processes

1. Inflammation – Body’s response to injury or infection
2. Degeneration – Deterioration of cells
3. Necrosis – Cell death
4. Neoplasia – Uncontrolled cell growth (benign or malignant)
5. Hemodynamic Disorders – Bleeding, clotting, edema
6. Infections – Bacterial, viral, fungal, parasitic.

Cardiovascular Anatomy for LMAF Course 1 Year

Cardiovascular anatomy involves the heart (a four-chambered pump), blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood, forming circuits to deliver oxygen/nutrients and remove waste, divided into pulmonary (heart-lungs) and systemic (heart-body) loops, crucial for body function. Key structures include the atria (receiving chambers), ventricles (pumping chambers), four valves (tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, aortic) controlling flow, and major vessels like the aorta, vena cavae, and pulmonary arteries/veins, all working to circulate life-sustaining blood. 

The Heart: The Central Pump

• Chambers: Four chambers: Right Atrium, Right Ventricle, Left Atrium, Left Ventricle.
• Valves: Four one-way valves ensure proper blood flow: Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Mitral (Bicuspid), Aortic.
• Septum: Muscular walls separating the right and left sides (interatrial and interventricular septum). 

Blood Vessels: The Network 

• Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (e.g., Aorta, Pulmonary Artery).
• Veins: Return deoxygenated blood to the heart (e.g., Vena Cavae, Pulmonary Veins).
• Capillaries: Tiny vessels connecting arterioles and venules, where nutrient/gas exchange occurs. 

The Two Circuits

1. Pulmonary Circulation: Right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs to get oxygen, then back to the left heart.
2. Systemic Circulation: Left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body’s tissues, and deoxygenated blood returns to the right heart. 

Blood Flow Through the Heart (Simplified)

1. Deoxygenated blood enters Right Atrium (from Vena Cavae).
2. Right Atrium to Right Ventricle (through Tricuspid Valve).
3. Right Ventricle to Lungs (through Pulmonary Valve & Artery).
4. Oxygenated blood returns to Left Atrium (from Pulmonary Veins).
5. Left Atrium to Left Ventricle (through Mitral Valve).
6. Left Ventricle pumps to the body (through Aortic Valve & Aorta). 

Orthopedic Anatomy for LMAF Course 1 Year

1. Definition

Orthopedic Anatomy is the study of the musculoskeletal system—bones, joints, muscles, ligaments, and tendons—in relation to movement, posture, and injury management.

বাংলা সংজ্ঞা:
অর্থোপেডিক অ্যানাটমি হলো হাড়, জয়েন্ট, পেশী, লিগামেন্ট এবং টেন্ডনের গঠন ও সম্পর্ক যা চলাচল, ভঙ্গি এবং আঘাত ব্যবস্থাপনায় প্রযোজ্য।

2. Components of Orthopedic Anatomy

A. Bones (Skeletal System)

• Provide support, shape, and protection
• Sites of muscle attachment
• Store calcium and produce blood cells (bone marrow)

Major Bones for Orthopedics:

• Axial Skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum
• Appendicular Skeleton: Shoulder girdle, upper limb, pelvic girdle, lower limb

B. Joints (Articulations)

• Sites where two or more bones meet
• Allow movement and provide stability

Types of Joints:

1. Fibrous (Immovable): Skull sutures
2. Cartilaginous (Slightly movable): Vertebral discs
3. Synovial (Freely movable):
   • Ball and socket: Shoulder, hip
   • Hinge: Elbow, knee
   • Pivot: Atlas-axis
   • Saddle: Thumb
   • Plane: Carpals

C. Muscles

• Responsible for movement and posture
• Convert chemical energy (ATP) into mechanical force

Types:

• Skeletal (voluntary, striated)
• Smooth (involuntary, visceral)
• Cardiac (heart)

Muscle Groups Common in Orthopedics:

• Upper limb: Biceps, triceps, deltoid
• Lower limb: Quadriceps, hamstrings, gastrocnemius
• Back: Erector spinae

D. Ligaments

• Connect bone to bone
• Provide joint stability
• Example: ACL, PCL (knee), MCL, LCL

E. Tendons

• Connect muscle to bone
• Transmit force to cause movement
• Example: Achilles tendon

3. Important Orthopedic Regions

1. Spine: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx
2. Upper Limb: Shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, hand
3. Lower Limb: Hip, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, foot
4. Pelvis: Supports body weight, connects spine and lower limbs

4. Common Orthopedic Terms

• Fracture: Break in a bone
• Dislocation: Bone moves out of joint
• Subluxation: Partial dislocation
• Sprain: Ligament injury
• Strain: Muscle or tendon injury
• Osteoporosis: Bone loss
• Arthritis: Joint inflammation

Antimicrobial Drug For LMAF Course 1 Year

Antimicrobial drugs are medicines that fight infections from microbes like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites, working by killing the germs (bactericidal/fungicidal) or stopping them from multiplying (bacteriostatic/fungistatic). They’re categorized by target (antibiotics for bacteria, antivirals for viruses, antifungals for fungi, antiparasitics for parasites) and spectrum (broad-spectrum for many microbes or narrow-spectrum for specific ones). These drugs are crucial for treating infections in humans, animals, and plants, but overuse leads to antimicrobial resistance, where microbes evolve to resist the drugs.

Types of Antimicrobial Drugs

• Antibiotics: Target bacteria, like penicillin (narrow-spectrum) or broad-spectrum types.
• Antivirals: Combat viruses, like baloxavir (Xofluza).
• Antifungals: Treat fungal infections (e.g., azoles).
• Antiparasitics: Fight parasites causing diseases like malaria (e.g., metronidazole, albendazole). 

How They Work (Mechanisms)

• Cell Wall Disruption: Some antibiotics stop bacteria from building their cell walls. 
• Metabolic Pathway Interference: Drugs like sulfa drugs block essential processes, such as folic acid synthesis, needed for microbial growth. 
• Protein/Nucleic Acid Inhibition: Disrupting the production of proteins or DNA/RNA. 

Key Concepts

• Selective Toxicity: The goal is to harm the microbe without harming the host’s cells. 
• Broad vs. Narrow Spectrum: Broad-spectrum drugs kill many types of microbes; narrow-spectrum drugs target a specific few. 
• Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): Microorganisms stop responding to drugs, a major global health threat.